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ATESOL ACT Journal, May 2007
4
CONFERENCE AND WORKSHOP REPORTS
GRAMMAR? MAKING SENSE?
By MaryMacken-Horarik, Senior Lecturer and Course Convenor of PhD Education, University of
Canberra
Introduction
What is it about the word, ‘grammar’? It is a word that strikes panic into the hearts and minds of
teachers widely regarded as expert in their knowledge about language. In fact, ‘panic’ was the first
word used by the recent workshop for ACT TESOL teachers held at Reid CIT on Saturday October
29. Although most TESOL teachers recognize the importance of a knowledge about language, many
express anxiety about the adequacy of their knowledge, particularly their ability to answer hard
questions put to them by second language learners whose knowledge of grammar often exceeds their
communicative competence. TESOL teachers are not alone in their uneasiness about grammar. In
2001, Jenny Hammond and I completed a study of the views of classroom English teachers about
matters such as literacy and grammar. Of the 126 teachers we surveyed across all educational systems,
over 90% felt it was important to teach knowledge about language. In fact, 86% expressed a view that
functional grammar was important. However, very few of this large number (only 12%) felt that they
knew enough about grammar to do it justice in classroom teaching (Hammond & Macken-Horarik,
2001)1.
The same mixture of ‘panic’ and ‘buzz’ marked the early discussions about grammar on the Saturday
workshop. In about equal measure, primary and adult TESOL teachers acknowledged the difficulty
and the importance of effective grammar teaching. Some participants expressed insecurity about their
own knowledge of grammatical metalanguage; others referred with chagrin to the fact that their adult
students often knew more about grammar than them and asked ‘hard questions’. Particularly galling
are students’ questions which highlight the lack of logic in many areas of English. Other participants
referred to the ‘buzz’ when some aspect of English grammar falls into place, when ‘you get it’ and
things ‘begin to make sense’. A knowledge of grammar provides second language learners with
structure, patterns and can be a positive experience for second language learners. Of course, there can
be a ‘dissonance between grammatical competence and communicative competence. Knowing that a
structure is grammatically correct and knowing how to use it appropriately in a given context are
different orders of knowing. In fact, the early discussions in the workshop raised some of the ‘big
questions’ of grammar in TESOL. These include the following (with thanks to Misty Adoniou for her
recording of them):
How do we move from ‘knowing about’ grammar to teaching grammar?
How do make our teaching of grammar interesting and relevant for learners?
How do we integrate grammatical competence and communicative competence?
How do we deal constructively with the irregularities in English grammar – problems of the definite
article, prepositions, phrasal verbs, complex tenses?
1 Hammond, J. & Macken-Horarik, M. (2001) “Teachers’ voices, teachers’ practices: insider
perspectives on literacy education”, Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, Vol. 24, No. 2,
pp.112-132.
ATESOL ACT Journal, May 2007
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How can we actually improve students’ writing through grammar?
The truth is that English is a very difficult language to learn. Irregularities in structure abound and
students often experience its grammar as unpredictable, complex and ‘messy’. How do we teach
grammar or more broadly, knowledge about language (KAL) so that we can help our students to see
and make use of the regularities and patterns underlying English? How do we work with the tension
between the ‘mess’ and the ‘patterns’ in English grammar?
Of course, the first step is to see the patterns at work in English at different levels. This took us into
the next phase of the workshop: the steps we take in making sense of grammar.
1 Three steps in the study of grammar
David Crystal maintains that there are two steps we need to take in the study of grammar2:
(i) to identify units in the stream of speech (or writing or signing) – units such as ‘word’ or
‘sentence’;
(ii) to analyze the patterns into which these units fall and the relationships of meaning that
these patterns convey – patterns such as subject and predicate and what this pattern allows
us to do.
However, it seems to me that we have an additional step available to us if we adopt a functional
approach to grammar:
(iii) to explain the part these patterns play in human meaning making – relating language
choices to the contexts and practices in which they are embedded
In my view, as a functional linguist, traditional grammar has much to offer in step 1 of Crystal’s
procedure. It develops what Halliday calls ‘the constituency principle’, an awareness of the elements
or constituents of a sentence, a clause and a group. Knowledge of the formal structure of nouns and
noun groups (or phrases) is a big help when it comes to identifying the people, places and things
referred to in a text. Knowledge of verbs and verb groups gives us a sense of ‘where the action is’ in a
sentence. The same goes for all parts of speech and parts of the sentence. Parsing helps us to identify
the units of structure in a stretch of language and a rudimentary idea of the work done by these units
(e.g. ‘The subject of the sentence is what the sentence is about’, ‘A pronoun stands in for a noun’ or
‘An adverb adds meaning to a verb’, and so on.)
However, beyond a basic awareness of the function of units such as subject and predicate, traditional
grammar does not offer much when it comes to step 2. Traditional grammar evolved over time to deal
with fairly minimal units of analysis such as the sentence and has had nothing to teach us about larger
units such as the text or the relationship between text and social context. TESOL teachers have had to
learn about these patterns from functional or discourse grammars such as that developed by Halliday
and his colleagues.
2 Crystal, D. 1987: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: p. 88.
ATESOL ACT Journal, May 2007
6
When it comes to step 3 of the stages of analysis – explaining the part that language patterns play in
human semiosis – we are only at the beginning of our endeavours. Human semiosis is both complex
and changing and our tools of analysis are very primitive. Halliday has suggested that our
grammatical tools are the equivalent of a bludgeon when compared to the rapier-like flexibility of
actual language use. Propositional ‘knowledge about’ language comes nowhere near the procedural
‘know how’ embodied in our use of language. This goes to the heart of the question raised by some
workshop participants on Saturday: How do we integrate grammatical competence and
communicative competence?
Although there are many grammars that have developed to take account of this flexibility and
complexity (Crystal lists at least 6 major types of grammar), there are two grammars which have
impacted most on language and literacy teaching in Australian schools: traditional and functional
grammar. Let’s look briefly at some of the differences between these two grammars – their strengths
and limitations. In the following table, I outline some important differences between traditional and
functional grammar. The table presents the differences as if they were absolute. Actually, it is a
caricature. As some people in the Saturday workshop suggested, there are some important overlaps
between the two, shared territory, strengths and weaknesses in both grammars.
Traditional grammar Functional grammar
Starting Point Standard English & rules of
correct usage (e.g. never use
the double negative).
Language varieties & resources for
making meaning (e.g. what effect the
double negative has in creating
emphasis).
Focus of study Focus on form (e.g. what
makes something a noun or a
verb).
Focus on function (e.g. what is the
effect of turning something into a
noun? What kinds of noun are
preferred in different genres?
Levels of
language
Sentence & below (sentence –
rase – word)
Text in context (then sentence and
below)
Mode focus Written language. Spoken and written language
(+multimodality).
Benefits Simpler and easier to learn;
more commonly used in
TESOL education.
Enables us to see & understand
more about language in context;
better for teaching.
Problems Doesn’t help us understand
why texts are the way they are.
Is technically heavy and harder to
learn initially (builds in ‘the mess’).
The discussion of differences between each grammar was interesting. A knowledge of traditional
grammar terminology is definitely an advantage in teaching English to second and foreign language
learners. The functional grammar terminology is not well known in foreign language teaching
contexts. Do we combine the terminology? What are the possibilities for moving between the two?
ATESOL ACT Journal, May 2007
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2 Some problem texts
In the first practical activity of the workshop, we looked at four texts produced by ESL students.
Text 1: The Echidna text
Text 2: Sydney’s Climate
Text 3: The kookaburra text
Text 4: The best pet
The four texts were problematic in some way and each group looked closely at one of them,
identifying areas of weakness to work on with students if they were to produce successful report texts.
We reproduce texts 2, 3 and 4 below, along with comments made by participants about each one. Text
1 is quite long and we did not get time to talk about this one in any detail.
Text 2: Sydney's Climate
Sydney is a beautiful place to visit it has one thing I don't really like that is the weather. Its climate is
always different. One day it could be raining and the next day it would be so hot you would have to
have a cold shower. I like Sydney's weather when it is nice and sunny I like Summer that is my
favourite time of the year, because it is mostly sunny. Although this year in Sydney it wasn't as sunny
as I thought it would be. Because half of Summer it was either raining or was very windy and very
cold.
Year 9 Geography student
The participants who analyzed this text noted its lack of report structure and its lack of technical
information about the temperature of Sydney. It is clear that this Geography student does not have
access to the specialized vocabulary necessary to write a factual report and relies on personal
experience of the vagaries of weather to construct the text. The participants noted some minor
problems with punctuation and said that it sounded very like spoken language. It should be noted that
the teacher who assessed this text at the time wrote ‘You needed to write a factual text about
Sydney’s climate, not an English essay’. Although the student can write, s/he is not able to write a
text appropriate for this context – an information report about Sydney’s climate for Geography.
Text 3: The Kookaburra text
I like kookaburra because they have long wings and a long tail and a long beck. I like when it goes
kkkkkaaaa and when they fly around. I like there colour.
This text was produced by Zoran prior to the teacher’s introduction of the class to the information
report. The participants noted its lack structure and its lack of substantial knowledge of the field
(Australian birds). There is a sweetness about its imitation of the sound of a kookaburra but the
student clearly needs access to models and to opportunities to research his topic area. Other comments
focussed on his problems with reference (plural and singular reference) and his overuse of personal
pronoun. Some felt he needed an introduction to topic sentences to do with kookaburras rather than
the personal voice of the writer.
ATESOL ACT Journal, May 2007
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Text 4: Fish Report
I think the best pet is fish. Fish is easy to buy. You just need a fish tank and feed them with fish food.
You can buy it at the local supermarket.
Fish is a nice pet because it won't bite and it is sometimes small. Some fish can grow to more than
30cm long.
Some fish are expensive but some don't and they are beautiful too. You'll be happy to have a fish as a
pet.
Yr 6 student (18 months in Australia)
Participants noted the lack of report structure, lack of coherence and connectives between ideas here –
the way discrete bits of information are put down without development. The student needs to
understand that the same word, ‘fish’, can be singular and plural (English is so confusing in its
irregularities!) Moving from first to second person is problematic in this text.
3 What a functional model of language offers
What does a functional grammar have to offer in work with students on factual texts? In the next part
of the workshop, we moved on to consider the use of categories such as genre, register and lower level
choices in the study of the language of information reporting. The point of the exercise was to show
how functional grammar works at different levels of attention, moving from text in context (including
the social purpose of a given text type) to paragraph level features and then into sentence-level and
down. We work on different units of analysis at different levels and they create distinctive patterns of
meaning. We applied the model of text in context to a short information report called The Numbat,
taken from an Encyclopedia and used by Martin and colleagues in their book, Working with
Functional Grammar 3
The Numbat
The numbat is an unmistakeable slender marsupial with a pointed muzzle and short erect ears. The
body is reddish brown but the rump is much darker and has about six white bars across it. The eye has
a black stripe through it and the long bushy tail is yellowish. The toes are strongly clawed and very
effective in digging out termites. The tongue can be extremely long, as in all mammalian ant or
termite eaters. Unlike most marsupials, the numbat is active during the day. It shelters in hollow logs.
It was once relatively common but now lives only in a small area of S.W. South Australia.
The functional model distributes attention across these levels and enables us to work with our students
on patterns of choice related to each level. The following table displays the language features we
notice at each level and the kinds of work we can do with our students on these features. It is useful to
analyze a model text with students and to get them to identify the features in other texts like it.
3 Martin, J. R. Matthiessen, C. & Painter, C. (1997) Working with Functional Grammar, Sydney, Arnold.
ATESOL ACT Journal, May 2007
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The Numbat at different levels
Features we notice Kinds of work we do
Social Purpose
of text
To systematically organize and
record factual information by
classifying and describing a
whole class of things.
Talk about the social purpose of
this kind of text (information
report) and why they are useful
for grouping information about
things in the world.
Text -level
features
Generic structure of report
Stages in sequence such as:
General Classification ^
Description of attributes and
typical behaviours.
Register features: building a
scientific field of knowledge;
adopting an expert’s tenor; using
factual language of the written
mode.
Talk about the different stages of
the report and the way they work
e.g. why reports start with a
general classification.
Talk about the world created by
the text (animals and their place
in a taxonomy); why experts
classify things this way; the kinds
of language they use in their
reports.
Para level Description that taxonomize
(e.g. a slender marsupial),
grading of attributes (e.g. a
reddish brown body), number
(e.g. 6 white bars across it).
Talk about the need for precise
details in the scientific description
of animals – find examples of
classification, grading, number,
location in this and other reports
like it.
Sentence-level
features
Declarative sentences mostly
simple (e.g. ‘it shelters in
hollow logs’) or compound
sentences (e.g. ‘the body is
reddish brown but the rump is
much darker’).
Focus on types of sentences used
in reports – simple and compound
sentences most often. Talk about
why these might be common in
information reports.
Word-level
features.
Semi-technical and technical
vocabulary (e.g. ‘marsupials’,
‘mammalian ant or termite
eaters’).
• Focus on words that classify the
numbat as a marsupial and words
that distinguish it from other
marsupial mammals.
ATESOL ACT Journal, May 2007
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There are a number of different workshop activities we can do with our students if we want them not
simply to understand but to use the language of the information report. One activity suggested was to
build up noun groups related to the phenomenon being studied (e.g. Australian mammals) in talk and
in writing, making sure that it includes factual information about the thing. These activities can be fun
for students. We can start with a simple noun such as ‘mammal’ and build up the factual description
of this creature before and after the noun (e.g. ‘the kangaroo is a marsupial mammal common to
grasslands across Australia’). Once students have started to research the phenomenon they are
investigating, they can be asked to identify some of the noun groups and to show how they are
building them up to include classifying adjectives or nouns before the thing and qualifying material
after the thing. Intensive work on the language of different genres can pay dividends. Note
improvement in Zoran’s factual writing after an 8 week unit on reports about sea mammals.
ATESOL ACT Journal, May 2007
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4. Comparing and contrasting texts
In the final section of the workshop, we compared the choices made in the information report to those
made in a different text type – a short narrative retold by Patricia Scott. The point of this activity was
to show how the same units of language – sentences, clauses, groups, etc do very different kinds of
work in different texts. A functional grammar enables us to identify the meaning differences in
different texts and gives us a metalanguage for talking about these with students. This takes us beyond
a focus on units of language and into consideration of the patterns of meaning achieved and the way
they vary according to the social context (genre and register) in which they occur. The workshop
participants identified some of the different features (e.g. dialogue, evocative language and a
complication) in the narrative and then we looked at the language features, using the same table as
before.
The Lion and the Mouse retold by Patricia Scott
One day a lion was resting when a little mouse, who lived nearby, ran playfully over his back and
down over his head to the ground.
The lion stirred and, reaching out, caught the mouse beneath his paw.
“Mouse,” he said, “you have disturbed my sleep. I think I will eat you.”
“Oh, pardon, my Lord,” said the mouse. “Please do not eat me. Perhaps, if you forgive me, someday I
may be able to do something to help you.”
The lion laughed. “You, a little mouse, help me, the king of the beasts?” He laughed again, but he
lifted his paw, allowing the mouse to go free. With a hasty “thank you”, the mouse ran off before the
lion could change his mind.
Over the next few days, the lion thought of the mouse often, but she kept well away from him.
Sometimes he would laugh again at the thought of a little mouse helping the king of the beasts.
But even kings can get into trouble. One day the lion became caught in a net set by hunters. As he
struggled to free himself, the net tightened and held him fast.
As luck would have it, the mouse came running that way in search of food. Seeing the lion caught in
the net, she called all her friends.
They came and gnawed at the strands of rope. Before long, they had broken the net and the lion was
free. Bowing, the lion thanked the mouse. “You were right,” he said. “Even the small and weak can
help the strong and mighty.”
ATESOL ACT Journal, May 2007
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The Lion and the Mouse at different levels
Features we notice Kinds of work we do
Social Purpose
of text
To entertain and teach moral
lessons through narrative
experience.
Talk about the social purpose of
this kind of story (fable) and why
they are popular.
Text -level
features
Generic structure of fable:
Orientation ^ Complication
Evaluation ^ Resolution ^ Coda
(moral).
Register features: building an
imaginary field of experience;
adopting a narrator’s tenor; using
literary language of written
mode.
Talk about the different stages of
the narrative and the way they
work – e.g. in orientation, in
initial conflict, etc.
Talk about the kind of world
created by the text (animals that
can talk); the moral lesson taught
by the narrator; the kinds of
language used in the text.
Para level
(one stage)
Dialogue between mouse and
lion
Talk about how we know the lion
makes the mouse nervous. Focus
on language choices here in the
different speech of the two
characters.
Sentence-level
features
Sentences focussed on reactions
of animal characters to one
another (often complex
sentences)
Focus on types of sentence used
by each character and what this
tells us about their differencese.
g. ‘Pardon my Lord’.
‘You, a little mouse, help me?”
Word-level
features.
• Stylistic vocabulary (e.g.
evocative action words eg
‘stirred’ or expressions of
politeness by mouse – e.g.
Pardon, perhaps, if, may etc).
• Focus on words that show how
polite the mouse is; talk about how
a confident mouse might talk.
The workshop will hopefully lead to an ongoing conversation between educational linguists like
myself and TESOL educators, responsible for inducting early phase learners into the rigours and
mysteries of English.
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